Introduction to Philosophy

-UPSC Optional

Introduction

Metaphysics - Who am I?
Where am I?
Ethics -Why am I here?
How should I act?
Epistemology - What is knowledge?
Politics - What is society/nature?
Aesthetics - What is beauty?

Epistemology – the philosophical study of nature of origin, nature, limits of human knowledge.
Indian Philosophical System Astika Nastika
Believe in superemacy of vedas. Rejects the superemacy of Veda 1. Nyaya (knowledge) 1.Charvaka 2. Vaiesesika (Atomic theory) 2.Jainism 3. Samkhya (purusa and prakrit) 3.Buddhism 4. Yoga (Patanjali) 5. Mimamsa 6. Uttar mimamsa/ Vedanta (Kapil mahamani)
The pre Socratic philosophers:
Though Socrates is considered as the father of western philosophy, A no. of Greek philosophers were active both before and after the life of Socrates. Collectively, these philosophers are known as pre Socratic philosophers. They pondered over questions such as from where does everything come? From what is everything created? And how can they be described in mathematical terms?
Later philosophers rejected most of the answers as pre Socratic. However, there notion of cosmos is considered to be the most important contribution to philosophy.
  Socrates (466BC-369 BC)
He is credited as one of the founders of western philosophy.
He is the first moral philosopher known to people mainly through the work of his disciples, Plato and Xenophanes.
Five most important works are:
Euthypro
Apology
Credo
Phedo
Symposium
The Socratic method(Elenchus);
A method of hypothesis elimination.
A dialectical method involving a discussion in the manner of questions and answers. Hypothesis are eliminated by finding contradictions. Basic definitions are also questioned. The essence of this method is to convince somebody that though he thought he knew something he did not hence there is a debate as to whether it is a positive method leading to knowledge or a negative method leading to refutation of false claims of knowledge. It leads to a puzzled state of mind. Socrates believes that his awareness about ignorance makes him more knowledgeable then the people though ignorant claim knowledge.
  Socrates Theme
1. The care of the soul.
Socrates believed in the concept of tripartite soul.
2. The unexamined life.
The unexamined life is not worth living.
3. All virtue is knowledge.
4. Errors are never intentional. (Except weak will)
5. All desire is for good.
6. Eudemonia
 
Theory of Forms
The theory of forms is a philosophical viewpoint which maintains that nonphysical ideas derive from rationality represents the most accurate reality. These forms are discussed in Plato’s dialogues Phedo, Republic and Pheadrus. Problem of universals
The problem of universals refers to metaphysical dilemma as to whether properties exist and if they do what are they? These properties are referred to as universals. The debate is whether these universals exist in reality or do they exist only in thought and speech. Some such universals are circularity.
Does a perfect circle exists or is it just a concept in my mind?
Ex: justice, beauty etc.
The theory of forms is said to be a classical solution to the problems of universals.
Every object or quality has an ideal form which is not sensory in nature. Whatever senses experience is manifestation of ideal forms in various circumstances. Appearances change that:
Substance
That what remains constant amid change is substance – Socrates.

 
Brahma satyam, jagat mithya.
Satya is inside us, everything else is maya.
ब्रह्म सत्यं जगन्मिथ्या जीवो ब्रह्मैव नापरः ।
अनेन वेद्यं सच्छास्त्रमिति वेदान्तडिण्डिमः ॥ २०॥
Brahman is the only truth, the world is unreal, and there is ultimately no difference between Brahman and individual self  
Thus a form is the essence of any object. True knowledge is the ability to grasp the world with ones mind.
Evidence of forms.
Following the logic of Socratic dialectic one can say that as the forms as the forms do not exist in the physical world, the evidence of existence of forms also cannot also be found in the physical world. We have to rely upon human perfection and perception. Though we may not have seen different objects having different shades of blue. The idea of blueness does exist in our minds.(This is because of perception). Though we may not have seen the perfect geometric form, we all know that they exist.
Criticism of theory of forms
1. According to Plato, forms exist as mental constructs in a non-sensible world.( a world which free of sensible data) this makes it very difficult to determine its firms and its particulars.
2. There is no clear idea as to how many things in the world have a form
Aristotle’s criticism: Like Plato Aristotle also rejects that the knowledge is perception. But his reasons are different. Plato says that perception is relative illusory and full of contradictions. However Aristotle says that Plato’s view about perception has resulted from an unsatisfactory analysis of perception.
According to Plato idea is a substance which can exist in the intelligible world without any representation in the sensible world. But according to Aristotle an idea must exist only in the object.
3. Plato’s theory of innate knowledge is incomplete though a person may know of geometric shapes, he would not know of geometric principles till he learns them.
4. No essence of anything can be out sided but Plato’s ideas exist in the non-sensible world, whereas the things in which the ideas exist are in the real world. This is an absurdity.  
The allegory of the cave  
A symbolism is used in a story.
The allegory of cave is written by Plato in Republic, it is written as a dialogue between Plato’s brother Glycon and Socrates.
This allegory is often used to explain the importance of knowledge and the perils of seeking knowledge.
A group of people have been chained in the cave in such a way that they cannot move. They are facing a blank wall, on this wall they see some objects, these objects are shadows projected on a wall from actual objects passing through the fire behind them. For the prisoners the shadows are the reality. Suppose one prisoner is freed, the prisoner will look around and see the fire which would hurt his eyes. He is free to go back to his original positions. Suppose he is dragged out into the light of the sun. The prisoner will be angry and in pain. However his eyes would slowly adjust to the light of the sun. And he would be ultimately be able to look at the sun. Now the freed prisoner would start thinking, that the world outside was superior to the world he experienced when he was inside the cave. He wants to drag out his friends (other prisoners) so that they can also become knowledgeable but when he returns to the cave he is blinded by the darkness. The other prisoners would conclude. That the freed prisoner’s journey outside the cave had actually harmed him and they should not undertake this journey.
"We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit."